Hunters, gatherers, cooks: New study

The way we think about the diet of early humans is changing rapidly. For a long time, it was assumed that hunter-gatherer-fishers mainly ate meat and fish and thus had little culinary refinement. Recent research, including an article in PLOS One[1], shows a more complex picture. New analyses of charred food remains in pottery indicate that early cuisines were much richer and more refined than long believed.

The technical basis of these insights lies in advanced archaeochemical and microbotanical analysis methods, applied to pottery from the Late Mesolithic and the Neolithic (approximately 8000–3000 BC) in various parts of Europe. Researchers studied charred food remains (so-called foodcrusts) that had adhered to the inside of pots. With techniques such as gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, lipids (fats) can be identified. The added value is that this makes it possible to distinguish between, for example, fish, terrestrial animals, and plant sources.

In addition, starch granules and phytoliths (hardened parts of a plant) were examined using light and electron microscopy. This in turn provides insight into specific plant species and processing methods such as grinding or cooking. Isotope analysis then helped to distinguish aquatic versus terrestrial food sources.

By combining these methods, researchers were able to reconstruct which ingredients were prepared together in a single pot. In short, it became possible to form a picture not only of food sources but also of the composition of meals. These dietary patterns are associated with populations of early modern humans (Homo sapiens) in Europe, with possible cultural influences from earlier groups including Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis). Most of the direct evidence from these studies relates to Homo sapiens communities in the transition from hunter-gatherers to early farmers.

Ancient meals

A first important lesson is that plants played a more significant role than long assumed. Although meat and fish were the main components of their diet, analysis of food remains on pottery shows that hunter-gatherers already regularly used berries, seeds, roots, tubers, and grains. These ingredients were not used incidentally, but appear to have formed a structural part of the diet.

Even more interestingly, in many cases they were likely deliberately combined with animal products. González Carretero et al. show that microscopic remains, such as starch granules and plant fibers, are clearly present in cooking residues. This indicates that plants were not only eaten, but also actively processed, for example by grinding, soaking, or cooking them. Research on charred food crusts further shows that plants such as grasses and legumes were systematically prepared together with fish or other aquatic sources. This undermines the idea of a one-sided meat diet and shows that plant-based food was an essential part of the menu.

A second important lesson is that early humans made clear culinary choices. They did not simply eat whatever was available, but selected specific ingredients and combined them purposefully. In different regions, recognizable “recipes” even emerged. González Carretero et al. point out that certain combinations recur repeatedly in different pots, suggesting shared cooking practices within communities. In some areas, fish and berries were combined, while elsewhere fish was prepared with wild grains, nuts, or green plants. This variation points to the early emergence of regional cuisines and cultural preferences, something we have so far mainly associated with later agricultural societies.

It is also striking that some ingredients were not naturally appealing. Researchers found, for example, remains of berries and plants that can be bitter or even mildly toxic when raw. The fact that these were nevertheless used suggests that people developed techniques to make them safe and palatable. This was done, for example, through prolonged cooking or by mixing them with other ingredients. Analysis suggests that heat treatment played an important role both in neutralizing harmful substances and improving digestibility.

A third lesson is that cooking itself was an important technological and cultural innovation. The use of pottery made it possible to prepare complex dishes in which different ingredients came together. The study emphasizes that pots were not only used for melting fats, but also for preparing composite meals. Charred food remains show that pots were actually used to cook, simmer, and mix ingredients. Experimentation was already central to hunter-gatherer cuisine. New flavors and textures could emerge. Conscious choices and possibly location-bound and cultivated preferences must have been passed down over generations and may have formed an important part of the cultural development of food practices.

Another aspect of these findings is that food preparation likely also had an important social function from an evolutionary perspective. Preparing complex meals requires time, cooperation, and the communication of knowledge. It is plausible that cooking was a moment when groups came together, exchanged knowledge, and strengthened social bonds. The repetition of certain recipes and preparation routines may, in short, have contributed to a shared identity within groups and further to social cohesion.

These factors existed well before agriculture. The variation between regions suggests that different groups developed their own cooking styles and food combinations, despite similar natural conditions. González Carretero et al. emphasize that these early culinary traditions may have formed the basis for later developments in agricultural cuisines.

In summary, an increasingly complex picture of prehistoric cuisine is emerging. There were times when people simply survived on what was available. But very early in human evolution, we see the emergence of a new culinary taste, food culture, and something akin to a connoisseur or food preparation specialist: a creative and skilled cook.

For paleo enthusiasts, it is once again emphasized what has become increasingly clear in recent years. Plants played a non-trivial role, and sometimes even an important one. A 2024 study by Moubtahij and colleagues already showed that a hunter-gatherer group from Taforalt, Morocco, did not rely primarily on meat, but even had a large plant component in their diet. Isotope analysis of teeth and bones indicated that these hunter-gatherers consumed many plants, while animal sources made up a smaller share.

The classic image of the prehistoric “meat-eating caveman” must therefore be nuanced. Findings point to a flexible diet in which wild plants, nuts, and starchy sources played a major role during scarcity of animal protein sources, with likely significant regional and seasonal differences.

Reference

[1] González Carretero, Lara, et al. "Selective culinary uses of plant foods by Northern and Eastern European hunter-gatherer-fishers." PLoS One 21.3 (2026): e0342740.

[2] Moubtahij, Zineb, et al. "Isotopic evidence of high reliance on plant food among Later Stone Age hunter-gatherers at Taforalt, Morocco." Nature Ecology & Evolution 8.5 (2024): 1035-1045.